Special Report: The Sultan and the Mount // FAI ONLINE

Muslim worshipers hold a portrait of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan following Friday noon prayer in Jerusalem's Old City's al-Aqsa mosque compound on the Temple Mount, December 22, 2017. (Creditg: Ahmad Gharabli, AFP).

The Sultan Caliph of Jerusalem

When Ottoman sultan Selim I arrived at Jerusalem for pilgrimage in late 1516, he found a crumbling Holy City. A few thousand Jewish, Christian and Muslim residents lived mostly in poverty. Dilapidated structures were left exposed to Bedouin raiders, who visited often, for lack of a protective wall. Selim had recently scored a major victory against the Egyptian Mamluks near the modern city of Aleppo in Syria, and all of the Levantine territories, from Damascus to Gaza, had surrendered to the Turkish king. He would go on to take Cairo and Egypt from the Mamluks the following year, receiving the submission of the Sharif of Mecca, ruler of the Two Holy Mosques in Mecca and Medina. According to Ottoman legend, Selim received the standard and sword of the Prophet Muhammad from the last caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, whose predecessors had officially held the title of Successor to Muhammad (i.e. caliph) for almost eight centuries. As suzerain of the Arab world, Selim became the defender of Islam; the political and religious leader of Muslims worldwide. And like every caliph since the seventh century, Selim became the steward of the Haram esh-Sharif, the Noble Sanctuary (i.e. the Temple Mount), from which Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended into heaven to meet the Biblical prophets and Allah. Turkish Ottoman caliphs had become the guardians of the third most revered site in Islam, and the protectors of Muslims in Jerusalem.

A painting of Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-1520 CE) during the Egyptian campaign (1516-1517 CE). (Source: Army Museum, Istanbul).

Despite his act of piety in making pilgrimage, Selim did not do much to improve the sad state of Jerusalem. Instead, his conquest of the Promised Land had painful repercussions for its native Jewish inhabitants. The sultan’s deputy, Murad Bey, was installed as the governor in Jerusalem. A letter signed by Jewish contemporary Japheth ben Manasseh describes what followed for the well-established Jewish community in Hebron nearby:

“In the seventh month, on the holiday of Succoth in 1517, the cruel tyrant; the Wrath of the Holy One Be He, Murad Bey, deputy of the Sultan and ruler of Jerusalem, decided in his heart to take out his fury on the Jews in his city and those living in Hebron. And he said 'I will take booty from them and take the Jews in the two cities captive so long as they have the power to see me.' And he carried out his decree. On that day, his men came to Hebron and killed many of the Jews who fought for their lives and plundered all their belongings until not one refugee or survivor was left in the Land. And a small remainder of those not felled by the sword fled to the Land of Beirut.”[1]

The well-regarded Solomon Goldman Lectures comments, "The Turks' conquest of the city [of Hebron] in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to Beirut, not to return until 1533."[2]

The community of Safed in the Northern Galilee suffered a similar episode. Retreating Egyptian Mamluk forces, convinced that the Jews had conspired against them, vented their rage on the 300 Jewish families of Safed. Rabbi Joseph Garson records that the Jews of Safed were “evicted from their homes, robbed and plundered, and they fled naked to the villages without any provisions.”[3] Whether at the hands of the victors or the losers, the Jews of the Land found themselves victims of violence and exploitation in the wake of the Ottoman-Mamluk War of 1516-17.

A portrait of Süleyman c.1530 from the workshop of Venetian artist Titian (Tiziano Vecelli).

The reign of Selim I ended shortly afterwards. Upon his death in 1520, Selim’s son and hand-picked successor ascended to become the sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the caliph of the Muslim World. Known to Turks as “the Lawgiver” for his reform and modernization of the Ottoman legal code, he was instead known begrudgingly to his European adversaries as “the Magnificent.” Suleyman was the consummate Ottoman sultan, whose political, economic and military largesse eclipsed that of his father during his 46-year reign.

Famous for his extravagant building projects, Suleyman’s attention to Jerusalem was no exception. According to Evliya Çelebi, an Ottoman historian and traveler who lived a century later, the Islamic prophet Muhammad came to Suleyman in a dream and told him,

“O Suleyman, you will live forty-eight years and make many gazas [strong cities]…However, you should spend these spoils on Mecca and Medina, and for the fortification of Jerusalem, lest the infidels invade it during the reigns of your followers. You should also install a water-basin in its courtyard and embellish the Dome of the Rock and offer annual gifts to the dervishes there and rebuild Jerusalem.”[4]

Beginning in 1537, Suleyman obeyed the character in his dream and undertook the task of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, ostensibly in preparation for another wave of European Crusaders which never came. The wall took five years to complete, encompassing the Old City at a total length of 4.5 kilometers (2.8 miles), rising between 5 and 15 meters above ground in different places, with a thickness of three meters at the base. Over thirty towers were built into the wall for the city’s defenses, and seven gates were eventually built to allow for the bustle of commerce and diplomacy.

The wall of Jerusalem around the Temple Mount complex as commissioned by Suleyman the Magnificent in the 1530’s (Photo Credit: Andrew Shiva)

In addition to the construction of the wall, Suleyman also renovated the exterior of the Dome of the Rock shrine on the Temple Mount, covering it with patterns of colorful, ornate tiles. Future sultans would renovate the structure’s interior and construct the adjacent Dome of the Prophet. Suleyman’s wall and renovations to the Dome of the Rock still stand today as remnants of the golden age of Ottoman prowess. As a surviving stone inscription testifies,

“[Suleyman] has decreed the construction of the wall he who has protected the home of Islam with his might and main and wiped out the tyranny of idols with his power and strength, he whom alone God has enabled to enslave the necks of kings in [many] countries and deservedly acquire the throne of the Caliphate...”[5]

For Suleyman, and for the Ottoman rulers who followed him, stewardship of the Holy City was evidence of a divine mandate to rule over the global “home of Islam" and to “enslave the necks of kings” across the known world. To acquire Jerusalem is to “deservedly acquire the throne of the Caliphate.”

Loss of Jerusalem, Death of the Caliphate

Suleyman the Magnificent died in 1566. During his lifetime, he had managed to expand the Turkish caliphate across Southeast Europe and reach (but not breach) the gates of Vienna. His empire continued to expand for another century. However, none of the great sultan’s successors would match his political, military and economic genius. By the eighteenth century, the ascending Romanov dynasty in Russia and Hapsburg dynasty in Austria-Hungry began to expand their respective empires, at the expense of the Ottomans. The self-proclaimed French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte took Egypt in 1799 and marched on Jerusalem, but was turned back, and French forces eventually vacated the Middle East. The capable Egyptian leader, Muhammad Ali, arose in the resulting vacuum, taking Jerusalem and the entire Levant in 1831. He marched twice on Constantinople in the following decade, and would have plausibly overthrown the Ottoman Empire altogether, had it not been for the intervention of European powers in mediating his withdrawal to Egypt in exchange for an internationally-recognized kingdom there.

Lord Alfred Allenby strides through the Old City from the Jaffa Gate in December, 1917, after the British victory against the Turkish Ottoman Empire in Jerusalem.

By the late nineteenth century, the Turkish empire was a shell of its former self, dubbed the “Sick Man of Europe” by resurgent European powers. When Sultan Mehmed V allied himself with Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I, the fate of his caliphate was finally sealed. British expeditionary forces advanced from Egypt into Palestine in 1917, culminating with General Edmund Allenby’s victorious procession through the Jaffa Gate into the Old City on December 11. Ottoman control of Jerusalem had lasted exactly 400 years, but the legacy of Suleyman’s Jerusalem had been stripped, his empire dismantled, and his office abolished soon afterward by a new, secular Turkish state under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. If the capture of Jerusalem meant gaining the “throne of the Caliphate,” the loss of Jerusalem meant the forfeiture of that throne. For almost a century hence, through another World War, a Cold War, and a War on Terror, that throne has remained empty. In the meantime, the British Mandate of Palestine gave way to a Jewish State, and after two Arab-Israeli wars, the restoration of a Jewish-led Jerusalem. The warning of Suleyman’s dream had come to pass. The “infidels” had “invaded” Jerusalem during the “reigns of [his] followers,” and there was no caliph to rally the Muslim world and retake it.

The Rise of a Would-Be Caliph

But in the last twenty years, a figure and a movement have arisen in Turkey which have sought to throw off the restraints of Kemalist secularism and gradually reclaim the mandates of Selim and Suleyman. In 1994, a young Islamist named Recep Tayyip Erdoğan rocked the Turkish political establishment by winning Istanbul’s mayoral election. As the charismatic, well-spoken leader of the “Welfare” party, Erdoğan immediately began implementing Islamic reforms across Istanbul. However, he was forced from office and briefly imprisoned in 1998 for inciting “religious hatred,” after the public recitation of a militant poem declaring, “The mosques are our barracks, the domes our helmets, the minarets our bayonets and the faithful our soldiers..."[6]

Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan speaks to his European Commission officials (Photo Credit: Adem Altan, AFP via Getty Images).

Despite the momentary setback, Erdoğan’s career was far from over. In 1999, he returned to Turkish politics, and his new Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party), or AKP, surged in national polls, winning the general election of 2002. Erdoğan and his pro-Islamist allies in the AKP began consolidating their power over the Turkish parliament, enacting constitutional reforms to create a presidential system (with Erdoğan naturally elected president in subsequent elections), quashing the free press with rampant imprisonments, and eventually uprooting the entrenched secular elites in Turkey’s political, military, and academic spheres. Beyond the borders of Turkey, Erdogan began exporting Turkish Islamism in the form of sprawling mosque complexes, schools, and foundations across the Middle East, Europe, and even North America. The outbreak of the so-called Arab Spring in 2011, which destabilized the territories of the old Ottoman Empire, provided Erdoğan with a pretext to assert Turkish hegemony across the region. Beginning in Syria during the height of the civil war, the Turkish military built a loyal network of Sunni Islamist militias, which they later used to invade and occupy Kurdish-majority territory in Syria along the Turkish border.

Turkey-backed Syrian fighters and displaced civilians raise flags of the Syrian opposition and the Turkish flag in Afrin, in Aleppo province, on March 17, 2021, as they mark 10 years since the beginning of nationwide anti-government protests that sparked the country's civil war (Photo Credit: Aaref Watad, AFP via Getty Images).

Emboldened by his success in Syria and the tepid international response, Erdoğan exported his Syrian proxies to Libya, staving off defeat for the pro-Islamist government in that nation’s civil war. Another proxy conflict followed in support of Turkic Azerbaijan’s invasion of Armenia to seize a disputed border region. Turkish military forces continue to encroach further and further into Iraqi Kurdistan towards the population centers of Sinjar and Duhok, while Turkish natural gas exploration vessels continue to encroach further and further into Greek and Cypriot waters in the Eastern Mediterranean. Erdoğan’s bellicose rhetoric, regularly threatening nations from Greece to Egypt, Armenia to Saudi Arabia, and of course, the State of Israel, reveal his continued belief in a militant Islam of mosque barracks and pious soldiers. A nostalgia for the days of Ottoman supremacy are increasingly evident in the popular culture of Turkey. It would seem that, after eighty years of sleep, the Ottoman beast (in its new iteration) is slowly awakening.

Yet, despite a series of political and military gains throughout the Middle East and North Africa in the last decade, the highest prize remains out of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s grasp. The “fortification of Jerusalem” against the “infidels” was historically a mandate for the “throne of the [Turkish] Caliphate.” But in 2002, a constitutionally-secularist Turkey was an unlikely candidate for such a role. The Turks had been the staunchest ally of the Jewish State in the Middle East. As the first Muslim-majority nation to grant Israel diplomatic recognition in 1949, Turkey cooperated with Israel on political, military and economic levels throughout the Cold War. But under Erdoğan’s government, this, too, would begin to change.

AN ALLIANCE WITH Resistance

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of the office of caliph in the early 1920’s, an organization was formed in Egypt known as al-Ikhwan, or “The Brotherhood.” More popularly known as the Muslim Brotherhood today, their stated goal was the unity of the Arab world under a modern, Islamic government, using democracy and social services as a vehicle to achieve their aims. But the onset of the Cold War frustrated their progress, entrenching despots across the Middle East who competed for the benefaction of NATO and USSR rivals. It would be al-nakba, or “The Catastrophe” of Israeli statehood and Arab Palestinian displacement, which would afford the Muslim Brotherhood an opportunity to be champions of their fellow Muslims. By 1973, the combined strength of six Arab national armies had failed to eradicate the “Zionist Experiment,” after several attempts. Instead, beginning with Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1979, the leadership of the Arab League had begun to accept the reality of a Jewish State. The Muslim Brotherhood provided a “pious” alternative to this moderation. In the Gaza Strip during the 1980’s, a group of Palestinian members of the Brotherhood formed the nucleus of what would become Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamah al-ʾIslāmiyyah, or the “Islamic Resistance Movement.” The group is better-known today by its Arabic acronym: Hamas.

Hamas leaders Ismail Haniyeh and Yahya Sinwar march to protest US President Donald Trump’s ‘Deal of the Century,’ in Gaza City in June 2019.(Photo Credit: Hassan Jedi, FLASH90)

After the demonstrations and riots of the First Intifada broke out across the Palestinian territories in 1987, Hamas drafted a charter which would serve as the ideological framework for its strategy to “resist” the “Zionist invaders.” The document is saturated with typical, anti-Semitic tropes, blaming the Jews and their supposed shadow governments for all of the world’s wars, poverty, and social ills, and portraying Israel as a nation of bloodthirsty and evil savages, bent on exterminating the Palestinian people. Notably, the charter specifically charges the Jewish people with the downfall of the Islamic caliphate:

“You may speak as much as you want about regional and world wars. They [the Jews] were behind World War I, when they were able to destroy the Islamic Caliphate, making financial gains and controlling resources.”[7]

With help from the “imperialistic forces in the Capitalist West and Communist East” who “support the enemy with all their might, in money and in men,”[8] Israel was not only responsible for the misery of the Palestinian people and the occupation of Palestinian land, but also the disruption of the universal Islamic government mandated by Allah. As always, the issue of Jerusalem lies at the heart of the matter.

“We cannot fail to remind every Muslim that when the Jews occupied Holy Jerusalem in 1967 and stood at the doorstep of the Blessed Aqsa Mosque, they shouted with joy: ‘Muhammed is dead, he left daughters behind.’ Israel, by virtue of its being Jewish and having a Jewish population, defies Islam and the Muslims.”[9]

The very existence of the Jewish State “defies” Islam and all Muslims, and its “occupation” of Jerusalem is a constant reminder of this perception.

After Yasser Arafat’s Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) made peace with Israel during the Oslo Accords in 1993, Hamas rose to prominence as the foremost Palestinian movement still opposed to Israel’s existence. When the Second Intifada broke out in the West Bank in 2001, Hamas was directly responsible for 40 percent of the 135 suicide bomb attacks which murdered, maimed, and terrorized Israeli citizens until 2005. That same year, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon unilaterally disengaged the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) from the Gaza Strip, forcibly evacuating all Israeli settlements, and paving the way for Palestinian self-determination in 2006 parliamentary elections. But the outcome of those elections was unexpected. Hamas won a majority of seats, gaining a slight advantage over the PLO’s Fatah party. Emboldened by his new role as prime minister of the Palestinian Territories, Hamas chairman Ismael Haniyeh traveled to Iran in late 2006, where he triumphantly declared,

“We will never recognize the usurper Zionist government and will continue our jihad-like movement until the liberation of Jerusalem…”

Erdoğan’s government began a rapprochement with Hamas in the Gaza Strip shortly after the group ascended to political power in 2006. After Israel blockaded the Gaza coast in 2007, the IHH “Humanitarian Relief Organization,” an Islamic charity based in Istanbul with dubious links to Hamas, began organizing a seaborne “humanitarian mission” to Gaza. Six ships were commissioned for the “Gaza Freedom Flotilla,” which would carry 590 passengers (mostly Turks), humanitarian supplies and construction materials from Turkish Cyprus to Gaza, running the Israeli blockade. On 31 May, 2010, the flotilla was interdicted in international waters by Israeli naval commandos, who intended to reroute the ships to Ashdod. After a team of Israelis boarded one ship, they were attacked by a group “hardcore” passengers with guns, knives, clubs and iron bars. Nine of the attackers were killed. Erdoğan immediately seized upon the Israeli raid, portraying it in public speech as a “slaughter,” and claiming that a “turning point” had been reached in Israeli-Turkish relations.[11]

The Mavi Marmara, one of the lead ships in the “Gaza Freedom Flotilla,” as it sets sail from Turkey carrying aid and hundreds of pro-Palestinian activists to the blockaded Gaza Strip. (Credit: Free Gaza Movement, via the Associated Press)

After the Gaza Flotilla Raid, Ankara began drifting further and further from Israel’s diplomatic orbit, while President Erdoğan began playing patron to Hamas. In a 2011 Israel-Hamas prisoner swap, the Turkish government offered to host senior members of Hamas on Turkish soil. In the decade since, Israeli intelligence reports detail the ways in which top Hamas operatives have been given incredible latitude to operate inside Turkey, including passports allowing them to travel abroad, and resources to conduct electronic surveillance and cyber-warfare in Istanbul. And besides hosting the Islamic Resistance at home, the Turkish president has established a base of Turkish presence and influence in the heart of Jerusalem itself.

Ottoman Shadows Over Jerusalem

Addressing Turkey’s parliament in October, 2020, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan lamented the Ottoman loss of Jerusalem at the end of the Great War, and his comments were hardly subtle.

“In this city [Jerusalem] that we had to leave in tears during the First World War, it is still possible to come across traces of the Ottoman resistance. So Jerusalem is our city, a city from us…”[12]

The Turkish leader doubled down on his comments in a later press release, stating that the “issue of Jerusalem” is not an “ordinary geopolitical problem” for Turkey, but that his Turkish “ancestors” held the city in “high esteem.”[13] In repeating his claim that “Jerusalem is our city,” Erdoğan connected his policies to the occupation of the Holy City by Selim I and Suleyman the Magnificent five centuries before.

After the most recent Israel-Gaza conflict in May, 2021, Erdoğan once again played the champion of the Palestinian cause. Describing Israel as a “terror state” for suppressing Palestinian rioters on the Temple Mount, he suggested an interfaith governing body for Jerusalem, which would include a Turkish military force inside the city for peacekeeping purposes. A Palestinian activist expressed the sentiment of her fellow Islamists in an interview with Turkish media, offering “millions of greetings to Erdoğan" and inviting the Turkish leader to "restore Palestine's liberty."[14]

Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan visits the al-Aqsa Mosque atop the Temple Mount in 2005 (Credit: Muhammad Muheisen)

Although laughable in the current political climate, President Erdoğan’s overtures for a Turkish military presence in Jerusalem nonetheless demonstrate a bold and ambitious drive to reestablish a foothold in the city. Moreover, he has been willing to put the Turkish government’s money where his mouth is. Tens of millions of dollars are donated by Turkish foundations and government institutions to various sources inside East Jerusalem every year, including the Muslim Brotherhood, and others with connections to Hamas. These “charitable donations” have won influence for Erdoğan. A short walk from the Western Wall in the Old City of Jerusalem, Turkish and PLO flags wave outside the Emad Abu Khadija Shop, a café and restaurant, where portraits of Erdoğan and Ottoman sultans hang on the wall. Elsewhere in East Jerusalem, the “Turkish Cultural Center” acts as a proxy for the Turkish consulate in Jerusalem. The center has cemented ties with local Palestinian clergy, recently signing an agreement with the Jerusalem Waqf, which administers Muslim affairs on the Temple Mount. Representing the Waqf at the signing was Sheikh Ekrima Sabri, the former Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and an affiliate of Islamist movements in the West Bank. Known for his virulent anti-Israel sermons at the al-Aqsa mosque, Sabri was banned from the Temple Mount by Israel. Erdoğan instead awarded him the “Guardian of Jerusalem Medal.”

Through Turkish intermediaries on the ground in East Jerusalem, President Erdoğan has established a direct line of patronage and influence on the Temple Mount itself. This is undoubtedly a means to his end, as the Turkish ruler who takes Jerusalem will “deservedly acquire the throne of the Caliphate.” And just as Selim’s conquest of Jerusalem and ascension to the office of caliph in 1517 had dire consequences for the Jewish inhabitants of the Land, so too will a kingdom “from the uttermost northern regions” of the Middle East have even greater consequences for the inhabitants of the Jewish State. The words of Murad Bey foreshadowed a future seen by the prophets and apostles:

“I will take booty from them and take the Jews in the two cities captive so long as they have the power to see me.'

“For I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle, and the city shall be taken and the houses plundered and the women raped. Half of the city shall go out into exile, but the rest of the people shall not be cut off from the city.” - Zechariah 14:2-3

Maranatha.

Citations:

[1] “Sefer Hebron - The Definitive Work on the City of the Forefathers.” The Jewish Community of Hebron, en.hebron.org.il/culture/563.

[2] The Solomon Goldman Lectures. Spertus College of Judaica Press. 1999. p. 56.

[3] David, Abraham. To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel. Translated by Dena Ordan. University of Alabama Press, 2010.

[4] “Story Map Journal.” Arcgis.com, www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?

[5] “Building Inscription Commemorating the Rebuilding of the Walls of Jerusalem.” The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, 17 Feb. 2021, www.imj.org.il/en/collections/374383.

[6] “Europe | Turkey's Charismatic pro-Islamic Leader.” BBC News, BBC, 4 Nov. 2002, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2270642.stm.

[7] “The Charter of Allah: The Platform of the Islamic Resistance Movement (HAMAS) .” Harry Truman Research Institute, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, Raphael Israeli, fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/880818.htm.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Ibid.

[10] USA Today, Gannett Satellite Information Network, usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-12-08-palestinian-pm_x.htm.

[11] “Gaza Flotilla Raid Draws Furious Response from Turkey's Prime Minister.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 1 June 2010, www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/01/gaza-flotilla-raid-turkey-prime-minister-israel.

[12] Ahren, Raphael, et al. “'Jerusalem Is Our City,' Turkey's Erdogan Declares.” The Times of Israel, 1 Oct. 2020, www.timesofisrael.com/jerusalem-is-our-city-turkeys-erdogan-declares/.

[13] Presidency, Turkish. “President @RTErdogan: ‘We Consider It an Honour on Behalf of Our Country and Nation to Express the Rights of the Oppressed Palestinian People on Every Platform, with Whom We Have Lived for Centuries." Pic.twitter.com/yCcfrrc5RY.” Twitter, Twitter, 1 Oct. 2020, twitter.com/trpresidency/status/1311670936870023168.

[14] “East Jerusalem Activist Greets Turkish President, Public.” Anadolu Ajansı, www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/east-jerusalem-activist-greets-turkish-president-public/2235040.

Other Sources:

Hebron Jews: Memory and Conflict in the Land of Israel, by Jerold S. Auerbach, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009.

Ottoman Rule (1517-1917) (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)

Ottoman Jerusalem (1517-1917) (arcgis.com)

Suleyman the Magnificent | Biography, Facts, Empire, Accomplishments, & History | Britannica

Selim I | Biography, Accomplishments, History, & Facts | Britannica

Suleiman the Magnificient: Builder of Ottoman Jerusalem (gojerusalem.com)

Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf (vanderbilt.edu)

The Ottomans and Sacred Places in Jerusalem - The Fountain Magazine | The Fountain Magazine

http://en.hebron.org.il/history/682

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-hebron

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mehmed-V